The Godfather of Ecstasy: Alexander Shulgin and MDMA

Overview: Alexander Shulgin, known as the “godfather of ecstasy,” played a crucial role in MDMA's journey from lab to clinic. Shulgin's research, including self-experimentation, shaped our understanding of MDMA's effects and its potential therapeutic use. His contributions in the late 1970s and early 1980s, alongside collaborator David Nichols, laid the foundation for MDMA's scientific inquiry. Shulgin's pivotal role in introducing MDMA to psychotherapist Leo Zeff, who then propagated its therapeutic use, further solidified his impact on MDMA's history. Despite uncertainties about his exact involvement, Alexander Shulgin's influence remains significant in the history of MDMA.

‍

Tracing the Origins of MDMA

In the realm of psychedelic-assisted therapy, MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’ or ‘Molly,’ has captured considerable attention. Recent clinical trials highlight its potential as a tool for healing in psychotherapy, particularly for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

‍

However, the origins of MDMA date back to 1912 when chemist Anton Köllisch first synthesized it. Despite periodic rediscoveries between the 1920s and 1960s, MDMA's therapeutic value remained largely unexplored until the late 1970s and early 1980s.

‍

During this early period of MDMA history, MDMA made sporadic appearances as an adjunct to psychotherapy sessions and gradually gained popularity as a recreational substance. However, its rising prominence soon attracted regulatory scrutiny, leading to its classification as a Schedule I substance by the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 1985.

‍

Amidst these developments, the figure of Alexander T. Shulgin, affectionately known as “Sasha,” emerges as a significant influencer. Shulgin, a pioneering chemist, earned the epithet of the “godfather of ecstasy” due to his pivotal role in shaping MDMA's trajectory. His impact became evident in 1978 with the publication of the first report detailing MDMA's effects on the human brain, co-authored with fellow chemist David Nichols.

‍

Throughout the 1990s, Shulgin continued to explore the scientific and historical dimensions of MDMA, leaving an enduring mark on the field. However, amidst the accolades, questions persist regarding Shulgin's precise role in MDMA's history.

‍

To unravel the uncertainty surrounding Shulgin's legacy and its implications for understanding MDMA's therapeutic potential, MDMA researcher Torsten Passie embarked on an examination of Shulgin's publications and laboratory records.

‍

A Glimpse into Alexander Shulgin's Life

Alexander Shulgin was born in 1925 in Berkeley, California, USA. After serving in the US Navy during World War II, he pursued studies in chemistry and biochemistry, earning a PhD from the University of California at Berkeley in 1955. 

‍

Following his academic pursuits, Shulgin joined the Dow Chemical Company in Walnut Creek, California. It was during his time at Dow that he had his first encounter with mescaline, a classic psychedelic compound found in certain species of cacti, such as San Pedro (Trichocereus pachanoi) and Peyote (Lophophora williamsii). His innovative work at Dow included creating one of the world’s first biodegradable insecticides (mexacarbate, sold under the brand name “Zectran”). 

‍

Zectran was so profitable that Shulgin received the freedom from Dow to explore his interests. He synthesized and tested over 200 potentially psychoactive compounds, often experimenting with them himself or alongside a select group of friends.

‍

In 1966, Shulgin left Dow to focus full-time on his research in his private laboratory in Lafayette, California, while also working as a consultant. With a Schedule I registration allowing him to research controlled substances, Shulgin continued to develop new psychoactive drugs, including various psychedelics.

‍

In 1991, Sasha and his wife Ann published the seminal book PIHKAL: Phenethylamines I Have Known And Loved. This autobiographical work featured an appendix detailing the synthesis and effects of nearly 200 drugs belonging to the phenethylamines class, solidifying Shulgin’s legacy as a pioneer in the field of psychoactive substances.

‍

‍

Shulgin’s Path To MDMA

Shulgin's journey to MDMA can be traced back to his earlier explorations with related compounds. In 1961, he synthesized and personally tested MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), laying the groundwork for his interest in psychoactive drugs. This was followed by his synthesis and personal experimentation with MMDA (3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyamphetamine) in 1962.

‍

During the mid-1960s, Shulgin collaborated with psychotherapist Claudio Naranjo MD at the University of Chile in Santiago de Chile to explore the therapeutic potential of MDA and MMDA. Their efforts yielded promising results, leading to the publication of encouraging findings on both substances.

‍

In PiHKAL, Shulgin mentions synthesizing MDMA in 1965, although he did not personally experiment with it at that time. This hesitance may have stemmed from reports by Naranjo, who experienced no effects from 100 milligrams (mg) of MDE (methylenedioxyethylamphetamine), a substance similar to MDMA often found as an adulterant in ecstasy pills.

‍

Despite not directly experimenting with MDMA, Shulgin's interest in these compounds during the 1960s brought him closer to an MDMA experience.

‍

Shulgin’s Role in the History of MDMA

In 1978, Shulgin, in collaboration with medicinal chemist David Nichols, published a seminal paper detailing the effects of MDMA in humans. The description provided in this paper was succinct, highlighting that the MDMA experience was “easily controlled” with “emotional and sensual overtones.” 

‍

A subsequent paper by Shulgin in 1986 delved into the historical background and chemistry of MDMA. This paper referenced a significant study conducted by the US Army in 1953-54 on the toxic effects of MDMA in animals, which was declassified in 1969 and published in 1973.

‍

This paper also touched upon studies investigating MDMA’s potential as an adjunct to psychotherapy. However, it omitted any mention of Shulgin’s personal involvement in introducing MDMA to psychotherapists, notably Leo Zeff, who played a crucial role in spreading its therapeutic use in the United States.

‍

In 1990, Shulgin penned a comprehensive ‘history of MDMA,’ tracing its origins from the initial synthesis by Merck in 1912 to later chemistry research. According to this paper, MDMA was first introduced into clinical practice in 1976 on the West Coast, followed by the East Coast a few months later. Shulgin's role in this was confined to the publication of the paper he published with Nichols in 1978.

‍

In PiHKAL, Shulgin offered the first detailed account of his rediscovery of MDMA. He recounted a pivotal moment in 1967 when he encountered a young chemistry professor in San Francisco. This professor's graduate student, known as “Merrie Kleinman,” had purportedly experimented with 100 mg of MDMA alongside two friends, all reporting positive experiences. Shortly thereafter, Shulgin decided to try MDMA himself. Additionally, in the book, Shulgin disclosed his introduction of MDMA to Leo Zeff.

‍

In a 1997 paper published in German, Shulgin shared additional insights into his early encounters with MDMA. He mentioned providing instructions on synthesizing MDMA to a chemist in 1970, speculating that this might have contributed to MDMA's appearance on the streets in the Midwest in the early 1970s.

‍

Shulgin also revealed hearing about MDMA's effects from a student around 1975 and confirmed taking MDMA for the first time in September 1976, as documented in his laboratory notebook.

‍

‍

A Look Inside Shulgin’s Laboratory Notebook

According to Passie, Shulgin’s laboratory notebook stands out as the most reliable source for understanding his role in the history of MDMA.

‍

Since his untimely passing, Shulgin’s assistants have taken measures to protect the privacy of individuals mentioned in the notebook by erasing their names and substituting pseudonyms. Importantly, the notebook entries were not consistently recorded on a day-to-day basis. Instead, Shulgin often began a new page with the description of a newly developed compound and later added notes primarily concerning his first experiences with it.

‍

The first entries, dated back to 1975, merely recount Shulgin’s recollections from others’ experiences with MDMA. These accounts included descriptions from self-experiments conducted by an individual referred to as “Flip.” Interestingly, Passie suggests that Flip may be the unnamed chemist mentioned in Shulgin's 1997 German paper, who had conducted self-experiments with MDMA before crossing paths with Shulgin.

‍

Shulgin himself had his initial self-experiments with MDMA in September and October of 1976. Starting with doses as low as 16 mg and gradually increasing to 100 mg, Shulgin recorded his experiences.

‍

At 81 mg, he noted a “smooth shift into a light intoxication,” and “distinct yet early alcohol-like effects,” while at 100 mg, Shulgin maintained “excellent control” in a “smooth” and “very nice” altered state of consciousness. He also noted MDMA’s impact on his interactions, including an “extraordinarily pleasant,” intimate encounter with his wife, Ann.

‍

These initial self-experiments left a profound impression on Alexander Shulgin, prompting him to continue exploring the effects of MDMA through further self-experiments. In PiHKAL, Shulgin vividly recounts a later experience he had with 120 mg of MDMA that encapsulates the profound shifts in perception and emotion often associated with psychedelic exploration:

‍

“As the material came on I felt that I was being enveloped, and my attention had to be directed to it. I became quite fearful, and my face felt cold and ashen. I felt that I wanted to go back, but I knew there was no turning back. Then the fear started to leave me, and I could try taking little baby steps, like taking first steps after being reborn. The woodpile is so beautiful, about all the joy and beauty that I can stand. I am afraid to turn around and face the mountains, for fear they will overpower me. But I did look, and I am astounded. Everyone must get to experience a profound state like this. I feel totally peaceful. I have lived all my life to get here, and I feel I have come home. I am complete.”

‍

Alexander Shulgin: Trailblazer of MDMA Science

Alexander Shulgin played a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of MDMA. His influence became evident in 1978 when he, alongside medicinal chemist David Nichols, published the first report detailing MDMA's effects in humans. This groundbreaking work marked the beginning of scientific inquiry into MDMA's subjective effects.

‍

Shulgin was instrumental in introducing MDMA to psychotherapist Leo Zeff, who then popularized its use in psychotherapy. This move laid the foundation for MDMA’s exploration as a potential tool in addressing various psychological conditions, including PTSD.

‍

Through his self-experimentation, Shulgin provided invaluable insights into MDMA's effects, laying the groundwork for subsequent research and therapeutic applications. His contributions to the understanding of the science of MDMA and the nuances of MDMA experiences continue to reverberate in modern-day discussions about psychedelics and their potential benefits.